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社會學(xué)習(xí)理論

Social learning theories propose that people internalize moral codes more through the process of socialization—learning behaviors through interaction with others—rather than through a stage-by-stage development process. Specifically, social learning theorists maintain a young person learns how to behave based on how elders (primarily parent figures) respond to the person?s violations of and compliance with rules. Rewards for acceptable behavior and sanctions (penalties) for transgressions indicate what appropriate behaviors are.

決策的概念

Decision making is the cognitive process leading to the selection of a course of action among several alternatives. Every decision making process produces a final choice. It can be an action or an opinion. It begins when we need to do something but know not what. Therefore, decision making is a reasoning process which can be rational or irrational, can be based on explicit assumptions or tacit assumptions.

structured rational decision making is an important part of all science-based professions, where specialists apply their knowledge in a given area to making informed decisions. For example, medical decision making often involves making a diagnosis and selecting an appropriate treatment. Some research using naturalistic methods shows, however, that in situations with higher time pressure, higher stakes, or increased ambiguities, experts use intuitive decision making rather than structured approaches, following a recognition primed decision approach to fit a set of indicators into the expert?s experience and immediately arrive at a satisfactory course of action without weighing alternatives.

自由意志

The question of free will is whether, and in what sense, rational agents exercise control over their actions and decisions. Addressing this question requires understanding the relationship between freedom and cause, and determining whether the laws of nature are causally deterministic. The various philosophical positions taken differ on whether all events are determined or not—determinism versus indeterminism—and also on whether freedom can coexist with determinism or not—compatibilism versus incompatibilism. So, for instance, hard determinists argue that the universe is deterministic, and that this makes free will impossible.

The principle of free will has religious, ethical, and scientific implications. For example, in the religious realm, free will may imply that an omnipotent divinity does not assert its power over individual will and choices. In ethics, it may imply that individuals can be held morally accountable for their actions. In the scientific realm, it may imply that the actions of the body, including the brain and the mind, are not wholly determined by physical causality. The question of free will has been a central issue since the beginning of philosophical thought.

真正的自由及其兩大要素

Real Freedom is a concept of freedom that expands upon notions of negative freedom by incorporating not simply institutional or other constraints on a person?s choices, but also the requirements of physical reality, resources and personal capacity. To have real freedom, an individual must:

1. Not be prevented from acting on his/her will (i.e. he/she must have traditional negative freedom); and

2. Possess the resources or capacities actually to carry out his/her will.

Real freedom expands on negative freedom by adding the idea of actually being able to exercise a capacity or resource in the absence of constraint; but does not go as far as some ideas of positive freedom, by refraining from appeal to self-government by a real, best, or higher self.

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