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觀眾眼中的新聞： 新聞是風險信號

Audiences may interpret news as a risk signal. A “risk signal” is characterized by two factors, an element of change (or uncertainty) and the relevance of that change to the security of the individual.

The same two conditions are observed to be characteristic of news. The news? value of a story, if defined in terms of the interest it carries for an audience, is determined by the degree of change it contains and the relevance that change has for the individual or group. Analysis shows that journalists and publicists manipulate both the element of change and relevance (“security concern”) to maximize, or in some cases play down, the strength of a story.

新聞業(yè)中的“高射炮”

Flak refers to negative responses to a media statement or program. The term “flak” has been used to describe targeted efforts to discredit organizations or individuals who disagree with or cast doubt on the prevailing assumptions which are favorable to established power. Unlike the first three “filtering” mechanisms—which are derived from analysis of market mechanisms—flak is characterized by concerted and intentional efforts to manage public information.

Flak from the powerful can be either direct or indirect. The direct could include the following hypothetical scenarios:

1. Letters or phone calls

2. Inquiries from the FCC to major television networks requesting documents used to plan and assemble a program

3. Messages from irate executives representing advertising agencies or corporate sponsors to media officials threatening retaliation if not granted on-air reply time

媒體偏見

Media bias is a term used to describe a real or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media, in the selection of which events will be reported and how they are covered. The term “media bias” usually refers to a pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. The direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed, since its causes are both practical and theoretical.

Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, and the requirement that selected facts be linked into a coherent narrative. Since it is impossible to report everything, some bias is inevitable. Government influence, including

overt and covert censorship, biases the media in some countries. Market forces that can result in a biased presentation include the ownership of the news source, the selection of staff, the preferences of an intended audience, or pressure from advertisers. Political affiliations arise from ideological positions of media owners and journalists. The space or air time available for reports, as well as deadlines needed to be met, can lead to incomplete and apparently biased stories.

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